When Reading, Do You Look Down at Commas and Periods

Introduction

Learning Objectives

• place the role of end punctuation: periods, question marks, exclamation points
• identify the role of commas
• identify the role of semicolons
• identify the function of colons
• place the function of hyphens and dashes
• place the role of apostrophes
• identify the role of quotation marks
• identify the role of brackets
• identify the role of ellipses
• identify the role of parentheses

In this brusque skit, comedian Victor Borge illustrates just how prevalent punctuation is (or should be) in language.

As you've simply heard, punctuation is everywhere. While it tin can be a struggle at first to learn the rules that come up forth with each mark, punctuation is here to help you: these marks were invented to guide readers through passages—to let them know how and where words relate to each other. When yous learn the rules of punctuation, you equip yourself with an extensive toolset so you can improve craft language to communicate the verbal message yous want.

As nosotros mentioned at the starting time of this module, dissimilar manner guides have slightly different rules for grammar. This is especially true when it comes to punctuation. This outcome volition cover the MLA rules for punctuation, just we'll also make note of rules from other styles when they're significantly unlike.

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End Punctuation

There are 3 common punctuation marks that come at the terminate of a judgement: the flow ( . ), the question marking ( ? ), and the assertion point ( ! ). A sentence is always followed by a single space, no affair what the final punctuation is.

Periods

Periods indicate a neutral sentence, and as such are by far the most common catastrophe punctuation mark. They've been at the end of every judgement on this folio then far.

Punctuation Clusters

Occasionally, yous'll come beyond an instance that seems to crave multiple punctuation marks correct side by side to each other. Sometimes you need to proceed all the marks, merely other times, you should go out some out.

• You should never use more than one ending punctuation marking in a row (menses, question marking exclamation point). When quoting a question, you would end with a question marking, non a question mark and a menstruum:
  • Carlos leaned frontwards and asked, "Did you go the answer to number six?"
• If an abbreviation, likeetc., ends a sentence, you should only use one period.
  • I remember nosotros'll accept enough food. Mary bought the whole store: chips, soda, candy, cereal, etc.
• However, y'all can place a comma immediately after a catamenia, as you lot can see above with etc.
• Periods and parentheses can also appear right side by side to each other. Sometimes the period comes afterward the endmost parenthesis (equally you can meet in the starting time bullet), but sometimes information technology appears inside the parentheses. (This is an example of a sentence where the menstruum falls within the parentheses.) We'll learn more about this in Text: Parentheses.

Question Marks

A question marking comes at the terminate of a question. A question is a request for information. The information requested should be provided in the form of an answer.

A rhetorical question is asked to make a betoken, and does not expect an answer (often the answer is implied or obvious). Some questions are used principally as polite requests (e.g., "Would y'all pass the salt?").

All of these questions tin be categorized as straight questions, and all of these questions crave a question mark at their ends.

Indirect Questions

Indirect questions tin can exist used in many of the same ways as direct ones, but they frequently emphasize knowledge or lack of knowledge:

• I can't guess how Tamika managed it.
• I wonder whether I looked that bad.
• Cecil asked where the reports were.

Such clauses correspond to direct questions, which are questions actually asked. The direct questions corresponding to the examples above are How did Tamika manage it? Did I look that bad? Where are the reports? Find how different word order is used in direct and indirect questions: in direct questions the verb usually comes before the subject, while indirect questions the verb appears second. Additionally, question marks should non be used at the terminate of indirect questions.

Do

Are the following sentences declarative or indirect sentences? Which need a question mark at the end?

1. Jackie wondered where her keys were
2. Can you pass the butter
3. Is anyone hither
4. She asked how you were doing
5. Why won't you lot acknowledge I'm right

Exclamation Points

The exclamation point is a punctuation mark ordinarily used after an interjection or exclamation to indicate stiff feelings or high volume, and oft marks the cease of a sentence. You've likely seen this overused on the cyberspace:

!!!!!! I'm but SO!!!!!!

While this kind of statement is excessive, there are advisable ways to employ exclamation points. A judgement ending in an exclamation mark may be an exclamation (such as "Wow!" or "Boo!"), or an imperative ("Terminate!"), or may point astonishment: "They were the footprints of a gigantic duck!" Exclamation marks are occasionally placed mid-sentence with a part like to a comma, for dramatic effect, although this usage is rare: "On the walk, oh! there was a frightful noise."

Informally, exclamation marks may be repeated for additional emphasis ("That'south great!!!"), but this exercise is more often than not considered simply acceptable in casual or informal writing, such as text messages or online communication with friends and family.

The exclamation mark is sometimes used in conjunction with the question mark. This tin can be in protest or astonishment ("Out of all places, the h2o-hole?!").

Overly frequent use of the assertion mark is more often than not considered poor writing, equally information technology distracts the reader and devalues the mark'due south significance.

Cut out all these assertion points. . . . An exclamation point is like laughing at your own joke.
— F. Scott Fitzgerald

Some authors, notwithstanding, most notably Tom Wolfe and Madison Acampora, are known for unashamedly liberal use of the assertion marking. In comic books, the very frequent utilize of exclamation mark is common.

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Commas

Commas: these picayune demons haunt the nightmares of many a professor after an evening of reading student papers. It seems virtually impossible to remember and apply the seventeen or so comma rules that seem to given out as the standard. (For example: "Utilize commas to set off independent clauses joined by the common coordinating conjunctions." or "Put a comma before the coordinating conjunction in a series.")

You lot take probably too heard a lot of tips on using commas in add-on to these rules: "Utilize one wherever you would naturally use a break," or "Read your work aloud, and whenever you feel yourself pausing, put in a comma." These techniques help to a degree, but our ears tend to pull a fast one on us, and nosotros need other avenues of assault.

Possibly the best and most instructive way for us to approach the comma is to remember its central part: information technology is a separator. Once you know this, the next pace is to decide what sorts of things more often than not require separation. This includes most transition words, descriptive words or phrases, adjacent items, and consummate ideas (consummate ideas incorporate both a subject and a verb).

Transition Words

Transition words add new viewpoints to your material; commas before and afterwards transition words help to separate them from the sentence ideas they are describing. Transition words tend to appear at the beginning or in the middle of a judgement. By definition, a transition word creates context that links to the preceding sentence. Typical transition words that require commas before and subsequently them include however, thus, therefore, as well, and nevertheless.

• Therefore, the natural gas industry can only be understood fully through an analysis of these recent political changes.
• The lead prosecutor was prepared, however, for a situation like this.

Note: As was mentioned, these words require commas at the showtime or heart of a sentence. When they appear between 2 complete ideas, even so, a flow or semicolon is required beforehand:

• Clint had been planning the trip with his kids for three months; however, when work called he couldn't say no.
• Sam was retired. However, he wanted to assist out.

As y'all can see from these examples, comma isalways required after transition words.

Descriptive Phrases

Descriptive phrases often demand to be separated from the things that they describe in order to clarify that the descriptive phrases are subordinate (i.eastward., they relate to the sentence context, just are less responsible for creating meaning than the sentence's subject and verb). Descriptive phrases tend to come up at the very beginning of a judgement, right afterward the subject of a judgement, or at the very end of a sentence.

• Near the end of the eighteenth century, James Hutton introduced a point of view that radically inverse scientists' thinking about geologic processes.
• James Lovelock, who showtime measured CFCs globally, said in 1973 that CFCs constituted no conceivable hazard.
• All of the major industrialized nations approved, making the possibility a reality.

In each of these cases, note how the material separated by the comma (east.k., "making the possibility a reality") is subordinate—i.eastward., information technology carries context in the judgement, just the main sentence meaning is still derived from the subject and verb. In each example, the phrase separated by the comma could be deleted from the sentence without destroying the judgement's basic meaning.

Notation: If the information is necessary to the chief sentence meaning, it should not be set up off past commas. Let's await at a quick example of this:

• Jefferson's son, Miles, just started college.
• Jefferson's son Miles merely started higher

You would write the outset sentence if Jefferson only has one son and his name is Miles. If Jefferson only has i son, then Miles is not needed information and should be fix off with commas.

You would write the second judgement if Jefferson has multiple sons, and information technology is his son Miles who just got into college. In the second sentence,Miles is necessary information, considering until his name is stated, you can't be sure which of Jefferson'due south sons the sentence is talking about.

This test can exist very helpful when yous're deciding whether or not to include commas in your writing.

Adjacent Items

Side by side items are words or phrases that have some sort of parallel relationship, yet are dissimilar from each other in meaning. Adjacent items are separated so that the reader tin can consider each particular individually.

The river caught burn down on July 4, 1968, in Cleveland, Ohio.

The dates (July iv, 1968) and places (Cleveland, Ohio) are juxtaposed, and commas are needed because the juxtaposed items are clearly different from each other. This applies to countries every bit well as states: "Paris, France, is beautiful this time of year."

Do

Do the post-obit sentences utilize commas correctly?

1. Sergi Sousa, the top-ranked shoe designer in Rhode Isle, is going to exist at the party tonight.
2. Sergi only wears shoes, that he created himself.
3. Sergi was born in Barcelona, Spain, on April 19.

Coordinating Conjunctions: FANBOYS

Nosotros learned about analogous conjunctions earlier in the course. These are words that bring together 2 words or phrases of equal importance. The mnemonic FANBOYS helps us remember the seven most common: f or, and, nor, only, or,yet, and and so.

When these conjunctions join two words or phrases, no comma is necessary (for more than two, take a await at "Commas in Lists" just below):

• Paula and Lucca had a great time on their appointment.
  • "Lucca had a swell fourth dimension on their date" is a consummate idea, simply the first phrase, Paula, is not. No comma is required beforeand.
• Minh turned off the lights but left the door unlocked.
  • "Minh turned off the lights" is a complete thought; "left the door unlocked." No comma is required beforesimply.
• Danny studied the lifespan of rhinoceroses in their native Republic of kenya and the lifespan of rhinoceroses in captivity.
  • "Danny studied the lifespan of rhinoceroses in their native Republic of kenya" is a complete idea; "the lifespan of rhinoceroses in captivity" is not. No comma is required beforeand.

When these conjunctions are used to join two complete ideas, even so, a comma is required:

• We could write this as two separate sentences, but nosotros've chosen to join them together hither.
  • Both "We could write this every bit two split sentences" and "We've called to join them together here" are complete ideas. A comma is required before thebut.

Practise

Look at the following sentences. Each includes a analogous conjunction. Decide if a comma should exist added before the conjunction:

1. Aamir and Tyesha went on a trip to California.
2. Aamir was nervous but Tyesha was excited.
3. They had been to E Coast earlier but never to the West.
4. Aamir became less nervous after he looked upward a few tourist guides online.
5. When they came home, Tyesha had not enjoyed herself but Aamir had.

Commas in Lists

The series comma is used to divide adjacent items—different items with equal importance—when there are 3 or more. This is so the reader tin consider each item individually. Allow'south look at a few examples

• Weathering may extend only a few centimeters beyond the zone in fresh granite, metamorphic rocks, sandstone, shale, and other rocks.
• This approach increases homogeneity, reduces the heating time, and creates a more uniform microstructure.

In the showtime sentence, the commas are important because each detail presented is distinctly different from its next item.  In the second example, the three phrases, all beginning with unlike verbs, are parallel, and the commas piece of work with the verbs to demonstrate that "This approach" has three distinctly different impacts.

The Serial Comma (a.thousand.a the Oxford Comma)

Maybe one of the most hotly contested comma rules is the case of the serial comma or theOxford comma. MLA fashion (as well equally APA andChicago) requires the use of the serial comma—AP style highly recommends leaving it out. But what is the serial comma?

The serial comma is the comma earlier theconjunction (and,or, andnor) in a series involving a parallel list of 3 or more things. For example, "I am industrious, resourceful , and loyal." The serial comma tin can provide clarity in sure situations. For example, if the and is part of a series of 3 or more phrases (groups of words) equally opposed to unmarried words:

Medical histories taken about each subject included smoking history, frequency of exercise, electric current acme and weight, and recent weight gain.

The serial comma can also prevent the end of a series from appearing to exist a parenthetical:

I'd like to give thanks my sisters, Beyoncé and Rhianna.

Without the series comma, it may appear that the speaker is thanking his or her two sisters, who are named Beyoncé and Rhianna (which could be possible, but isn't true in this case). By adding the serial comma, it becomes articulate that the speaker is thanking his or her sisters, besides every bit the 2 famous singers: "I'd like to thank my sisters, Beyoncé, and Rhianna."

By always using a comma earlier the and in any series of three or more, you honor the distinctions between each of the separated items, and you avoid any potential reader confusion.

Note: Some professors and many journals adopt to leave out the serial comma (for the journals, it is literally cheaper to impress fewer commas). Because of this, the serial comma is not recommend in AP mode.

Practice

Practice the post-obit sentences use commas correctly?

1. Ava'south favorite meals are cauliflower soup, steak, and eggs, lasagna, and chicken parmigiana.
2. Victor tried to make dinner for her. Unfortunately, his skills are more often than not express to eating, ownership, or serving food.
3. Victor and Ava decided to choose a restaurant, and go out to eat.

Comma Overuse

A sure manner to irritate educated readers of your piece of work is to give them an glut of commas. Information technology is piece of cake only dangerous to have the attitude that Sally once did in a Peanuts comic strip, asking Charlie Brown to correct her essay by showing her "where to sprinkle in the little curvy marks."

Perhaps the best way to troubleshoot your particular comma problems, especially if they are serious, is to identify and understand the patterns of your errors. We tend to make the aforementioned mistakes over and over over again; in fact, many writers develop the unfortunate habit of automatically putting commas into slots such as these:

• between the field of study and verb of a sentence
• after whatsoever number
• before any preposition
• before or after any conjunction

Thus, wrong sentences such as these appear in papers:

• The bushings, must be adapted weekly, to ensure that the motor is not damaged.
• Many botanists all the same do not fully appreciate these findings even after 22 years, following the publication of the discovery paper.
• Other manufactured chemicals that besides contain bromine are superior for extinguishing fires in situations where people, and electronics are likely to exist present.
• The toll of platinum will ascension, or fall depending on several distinct factors.

If the commas above look fine to y'all, and so y'all may exist in the addiction of using commas incorrectly, and you will demand to attack your specific habits, perhaps even in a routine, repetitive fashion, in guild to break yourself of them. Similarly, it is common for someone to have to look up the same tricky word dozens of times before committing its proper spelling to retention. As with spelling, commas (or the absence of commas) must be repeatedly challenged in your writing.

As you perfect your comma usage, you volition learn to recognize and reevaluate your judgement patterns, and the rewards are numerous. There is no foolproof or easy way to exorcise all of your comma demons, but a great identify to beginning is reminding yourself of the comma's bones function as a separator and justifying the separation of elements. In the terminate, y'all just must brand a habit of reading, writing, and revising with comma correctness in heed. Recollect: commas accept much to do with sentence wording, which is always in the command of the writer.

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Semicolons

The semicolon is one of the most misunderstood and misused punctuation marks; in fact, it is often mistaken for the colon (which we'll discuss next). However, these ii punctuation marks are not interchangeable. A semicolon connects two consummate ideas (a consummate idea has a bailiwick and a verb) that are connected to each other. Look at this sentence for example:

Anika's statue is presently displayed in the center of the exhibit; this location makes it a focal point and allows information technology to direct the flow of visitors to the museum.

The commencement thought tells usa where Anika's statue is, and the second idea tells united states more virtually the location and it'south importance. Each of these ideas could exist its ain judgement, but past using a semicolon, the author is telling the reader that the two ideas are connected. Oftentimes, you may detect yourself putting a comma in the place of the semicolon; this is incorrect. Using a comma here would create a run-on sentence (we'll discuss those more than in Sentence Structure). Remember: a comma can join a complete idea to other items while a semicolon needs a consummate idea on either side.

Practice

Practice the following sentences need a comma or a semicolon?

1. Kieran never throws anything away __ he'due south convinced he'll need these things someday.
2. Because I left my keys at my apartment __ I had to stay on campus and wait for my roommate.
3. Zebras are the most popular animals at my local zoo __ however, elephants are my favorite animal.

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Colons

The colon: well-loved but, oh, then misunderstood. The colon is not simply used to introduce a list; it is far more than flexible. The colon can be used after the first give-and-take of a sentence or but before the final word of a sentence. The colon can also be used to introduce a grammatically independent sentence. Thus, it is one of the most powerful punctuation marks.

The colon is like a sign on the highway, announcing that something of import is coming. It acts equally an pointer pointing forward, telling you to read on for important information. A common analogy used to explain the colon is that information technology acts like a flare in the road, signaling that something meaningful lies ahead.

Apply the colon when you wish to provide pithy emphasis.

To accost this problem, nosotros must plough to i of the biologist's most key tools: the Petri dish.

Use the colon to innovate material that explains, amplifies, or summaries what has preceded information technology.

The Petri dish: 1 of the biologist's most fundamental tools.

In low carbon steels, banding tends to affect two properties in detail: tensile ductility and yield strength.

The colon is likewise commonly used to present a list or series, which comes in handy when at that place is a lot of similar material to join:

A compost facility may non be located as follows: within 300 anxiety of an infrequent-value wetland; within 100 feet of a perennial stream; within fifty anxiety of a property line.

Exercise

Is the colon used correctly in the following sentences?

1. Recently I had to convince my friend to salvage more of his pay check: he had spent nigh of his final one on art supplies.
2. He would buy, for example: art books, fancy pens, and different types of newspaper.
3. I told him that he shouldn't purchase art supplies in the following situations: (1) when he gets a random urge to buy more, (2) when he wants to get supplies he doesn't need to complete a ready, (iii) when he gets supplies he won't utilize "but in case" he e'er needs them.
4. If he ever does need new supplies, he should: write downwardly a list of things he needs, make up one's mind which things he can become at a lower price without affecting his art, and just buy a few things at a time.
5. I made sure that his spending limits were very verbal: he couldn't spend more than a third of his paycheck on art supplies.

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Hyphens and Dashes

Hyphens

The Oxford Transmission of Mode once stated, "If you take hyphens seriously you lot will surely go mad." Hyphens belong to that category of punctuation marks that volition hurt your brain if you think most them too hard, and, like commas, people disagree most their utilise in sure situations. Nevertheless, y'all will have to apply them regularly because of the nature of academic and professional writing. If you lot learn to use hyphens properly, they assist yous to write efficiently and concretely.

The Hyphen's Function

Fundamentally, the hyphen is a joiner. It tin join several different types of things:

• 2 nouns to make one complete give-and-take (kilogram-meter)
• an adjective and a noun to make a compound give-and-take (accident-decumbent)
• two words that, when linked, describe a noun (agreed-upon sum, 2-dimensional object)
• a prefix with a noun (un-American)
• double numbers (20-four)
• numbers and units describing a noun (1000-human foot face; a x-meter difference)
• "self" words (cocky-employed, self-esteem)
• new word blends (cancer-causing, cost-effective)
• prefixes and suffixes to words, in particular when the writer wants to avert doubling a vowel or tripling a consonant (anti-inflammatory; beat-like)
• multiple adjectives with the same noun (bluish- and yellowish-green beads; 4- and five-year-olds)

A rule of thumb for the hyphen is that the resulting discussion must act as i unit; therefore, the hyphen creates a new word that has a single meaning. Usually, y'all can tell whether a hyphen is necessary by applying mutual sense and mentally excluding ane of the words in question, testing how the words would work together without the hyphen. For case, the phrases "loftier-pressure arrangement," "water-repellent surface," and "fuel-efficient car" would non make sense without hyphens, considering you would not refer to a "high organization," a "h2o surface," or a "fuel car." Every bit your ears and optics become attuned to proper hyphenation practices, you will recognize that both meaning and convention dictate where hyphens fit best.

Examples of Properly Used Hyphens

Some examples of properly used hyphens follow. Notation how the hyphenated word acts as a single unit carrying a meaning that the words existence joined would not have individually.

small-scale written report	two-prong plug	strength-to-weight ratio	high-velocity catamenia	frost-free lawn
cocky-employed worker	ane-3rd majority	coarse-grained wood	determination-making process	blue-greenish algae
air-ice interface	silverish-stained cells	protein-calorie malnutrition	membrane-bound vesicles	phase-contrast microscope
long-term-payment loan	toll-effective plan	time-dependent variable	radiation-sensitive sample	long-chain fatty acid

When Hyphens Are Not Needed

By convention, hyphens are not used after words ending in –ly, nor when the words are so unremarkably used in combination that no ambiguity results. In these examples, no hyphens are needed:

finely tuned engine	claret pressure	ocean level
real estate	demography taker	diminutive energy
civil rights police force	public utility constitute	carbon dioxide

Annotation: Phrases like containing the word well likewell known are contested.Well is an adverb, and thus many fall into the schoolhouse of idea that a hyphen is unnecessary. However, others say that leaving out the hyphen may cause defoliation and therefore include it (well-known). The standard in MLA is equally follows: When it appears before the noun,well known should be hyphenated. When it follows the noun, no hyphenation is needed.

• She is a well-known person.
• She is well known.

Prefixes and Suffixes

Most prefixes do non need to be hyphenated; they are merely added in forepart of a noun, with no spaces and no joining punctuation necessary. The following is a list of common prefixes that do not require hyphenation when added to a noun:

after	anti	bi	bio	co
cyber	di	down	hetero	homo
infra	inter	macro	micro	mini
nano	photo	poly	stereo	thermo

Note: The prefixre generally doesn't require a hyphen. Withal, when leaving out a hyphen volition cause confusion, 1 should exist added. Wait at the following word pairs, for example:

• resign (leave a position) v. re-sign (sign the paper once more)
• recreation (an activeness of leisure) v. re-creation(create something again)

Common suffixes also practice not require hyphenation, assuming no ambiguities of spelling or pronunciation ascend. Typically, you do not need to hyphenate words ending in the post-obit suffixes:

able

less

fold

like

wise

Commonly Used Word Blends

Likewise, particularly in technical fields, some words usually used in succession go joined into one. The resulting word'south pregnant is readily understood by technical readers, and no hyphen is necessary. Here are some examples of such word blends, typically written every bit single words:

blackbody	groundwater	airship
downdraft	longwall	upload
setup	runoff	blowout

Practice

1. No one believed Hikaru when he said he was (self taught/cocky-taught) because his skills necessitated the presence of a teacher.
2. Jean promised to drib the boys off at the (railroad/track-road) station.
3. Roy and Riza were very tired after the (three 60 minutes-long/3-hour-long/three-60 minutes long) PTA meeting.
4. Eli was pleased to come across that he still had a (four or five-point/four- or five-signal) atomic number 82 on his opponent.

Dashes

The dash functions almost equally a colon does in that it adds to the preceding material, but with actress emphasis. Like a caesura (a timely pause) in music, a dash indicates a strong pause, then gives emphasis to material following the pause. In issue, a nuance allows you lot to redefine what was but written, making information technology more than explicit. You tin can too utilise a nuance as information technology is used in the first sentence of this paragraph: to frame an interruptive or parenthetical-type annotate that you lot exercise not want to de-emphasize.

• Jill Emery confirms that Muslim populations take typically been ruled by non-Muslims—specifically Americans, Russians, Israelis, and the French.
• The dissolution took 20 minutes—much longer than predictable—but measurements were begun equally shortly as the process was completed.

There is no "dash" button on a computer keyboard. Instead, create information technology by typing the hyphen button twice in a row; or use the "symbol" option in your word processor; or apply the Mac shortcut option + shift + —.

When y'all type the hyphen or dash, no spaces should appear on either side of the punctuation mark.

Practice

Is the nuance used correctly in the post-obit sentences?

1. Fifty people volition be coming to the potluck on Thursday—at least that'southward what the survey said—so we should be sure to bring a lot of sandwiches.
2. A balanced meal should ever include—proteins, vegetables, and carbohydrates.
3. I know I missed the terminal several meetings, but I won't sleep through this one—honestly!
4. We convinced our teacher that we needed a field trip—who knows how—so we're all going to a publishing company on Thursday.

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Apostrophes

Possession

With possessives, the apostrophe is used in combination with an southward to correspond that a word literally or conceptually possesses what follows information technology.

• a student'due south paper
• the canton'south borders
• a nation's conclusion
• i hour'south passing

Apostrophes with Words Ending insouth and with Plurals

Atypical words whether or non they end in southward, are fabricated possessive past adding an apostrophe +s. For plural words, we typically indicate possession only by adding the apostrophe without an boosted due south. Notwithstanding, a plural that does non finish in ans (e.g., bacteria), we would add together an apostrophe +due south.

• Illinois's law
• Mars's temper
• interviewees' answers
• the bacteria's life cycle
• her professors' office (an office shared by two of her professors; if it were but i professor we would writeher professor's function)

Annotation: Practices vary from style to style, so be certain to bank check the rules in your course's discipline for this.

Contractions

A contraction is a shortened phrase. He will becomeshe'll,are not becomesaren't, would have becomes would've, andit is becomesit'south. In all of these cases, the apostrophe stands in for the missing letters.

You may notice yourself existence steered abroad from using contractions in your papers. While y'all should write to your teacher'southward preference, keep in mind that leaving out contractions can often make your words sound over formal and stilted. (And don't eliminate contractions in your papers but to upward your word count!)

Notation: Double contractions, like wouldn't've or I'd've are considered non-standard and should be avoided in formal written language.

Some Common Errors

Now that we've learned about both contraction and possession, let's take a look at some of the almost mutual (or at least about called out) errors people make.

Its versusIt's

This rule also applies toyour vs.you'reand their vs.they're. The best way to use these correctly is to remember that possessive pronouns never have an apostrophe: if at that place'south an apostrophe with a pronoun, information technology's a contraction, not a possessive.

Should've versusShould of

• Should of, would of, could of
• Should've, would've, could've

This error is due to the pronunciation. Out loud both of these phrases sound exactly the same. However, call back that the original phrase isshould accept, as in "I should accept done that." The phrase should of should never occur. Unfortunately, the merely way to remember this is rote memorization (or perhaps a closer test of the wordof).

Acronyms and Numbers

In technical writing, acronyms and numbers are frequently pluralized with the addition of an apostrophe +s, but this is falling out of favor, and there is typically no need to put an apostrophe in forepart of the s. Therefore, SSTs (body of water surface temperatures) is more acceptable than SST'due south when your intention is simply to pluralize.

Ideally, employ the apostrophe before the due south with an acronym or a number only to bear witness possession (i.e., "an 1860'due south police"; "DEP's testing") or when confusion would otherwise outcome ("listen your p's and q'southward").

When talking nearly a specific decade the 1920s should be shortened tothe '20s. Notice that the apostrophe curls away from the numbers, indicating that the missing characters originally appeared prior to the apostrophe.

Practice

Select the response from the list that best completes the sentence.

1. "(Who'southward/Whose) cookies are these?" May asked. At the same time, Russell ran into the room and yelled, "(Who's/Whose) the person who took my cookies?"
2. I don't understand people who think that (its/it's) ok to pour the milk in the bowl before adding the cereal.
3. Earlier the (1860s/1860's/1860s'), no one knew that heating a liquid would kill off bacteria.
4. Everyone in town knew that (Trisha'due south/Trishas') stew was better than anyone (else's/elses).
5. All my (neighbor'south/neighbors'/neighbors) apple trees bloom before mine.

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Quotation Marks

In that location are three typical ways quotation marks are used. The first is pretty self-explanatory: you lot apply quotation marks when y'all're making a direct quote.

• He said "I'll never forget you." It was the all-time moment of my life.
• Yogi Berra famously said, "A nickel own't worth a dime anymore."

The second is when you're calling attention to a word. For example:

• I can never say "Worcestershire" correctly.
• How practice you lot spell "definitely"?

Annotation: Information technology is this course's preference to utilise italics in these instances:

• I tin never sayWorcestershire correctly.
• How do yous spelldefinitely?

However, using quotes is also an accepted exercise.

The last utilize is scare quotes. This is the about misused type of quotation marks. People ofttimes call up that quotation marks mean emphasis.

• Buy some "fresh" chicken today!
• Nosotros'll requite information technology our "best" endeavour.
• Employees "must" wash their hands before returning to work.

All the same, when used this way, the quotation marks insert a silent "so-called" into the sentence, which is often the contrary of the intended meaning.

Where do Quotation Marks Get?

Despite what you lot may come across adept—especially in advertising, on tv set, and even in business organization letters—the fact is that the period and comma go inside the quotation marks all of the time. Confusion arises because the British organisation is different, and the American organisation may automatically look wrong to y'all, only it is only i of the often cleaved rules of written English in America: The period and comma always get within the quotation marks.

• Correct: The people of the pino barrens are frequently chosen "pineys."
• Wrong: The people of the pino barrens are often chosen "pineys".

Yet, the semicolon, colon, dash, question mark, and exclamation point fall outside of the quotation marks (unless, of course, the quoted material has internal punctuation of its own).

• This measurement is normally known as "dip angle"; dip bending is the bending formed between a normal plane and a vertical.
• Built only 50 years ago, Shakhtinsk—"minetown"—is already seedy.
• When she was asked the question "Are rainbows possible in wintertime?" she answered past examining whether raindrops freeze at temperatures below 0 °C. (Quoted textile has its own punctuation.)
• Did he actually say "Dogs are the devil's henchmen"? (The quote is a statement, but the full judgement is a question.)

Exercise

Accept the following sentences been punctuated correctly?

1. "Hello Marcelo" Nikola said "How have you been doing"?
2. "I'grand doing well." he said.
3. He asked, "What'due south new with you lot?"
4. My friend told me that "He has a new car."
5. The car dealership promised the "best" prices in boondocks!

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Brackets

Brackets are a fairly uncommon punctuation mark. Their chief use is in quotations: they can be used to clarify quotes. For example, say you want to quote the following passage:

"I finally got to run across Trent today. I had a actually great time with him. He was a lot taller than expected, though."

However, you lot but want to relay the fact that Trent was taller than the speaker expected him to be. In club to do this, you would write the following: "[Trent] was a lot taller than expected."

The brackets let the reader know that while the word Trent wasn't in the original quote, his name was unsaid in that location. When using brackets, you need to be careful non to modify the original meaning of the quote.

Another utilize of brackets is when at that place is a spelling or advisory error in the original quote. For example, "Gabriel sat down on the river bank to fed [sic] the ducks."  (The term sic means that the typo was in the original source of this quote.)

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Ellipses

An ellipsis (plural ellipses) is a series of 3 periods, as you can come across in the icon to the right.

Every bit with well-nigh punctuation marks, at that place is some contention about its usage. The main point of contention is whether or not there should be a space betwixt the periods (. . .) or not (…). MLA, APA, andChicago, the most mutual manner guides for students, support having spaces betwixt the periods. Others you may see, such every bit in journalism, may not.

Quotes

Like the brackets we simply learned about, you volition primarily see ellipses used in quotes. They signal a missing portion in a quote. Expect at the following quote for an instance:

Sauropod dinosaurs are the biggest animals to have ever walked on land. They are instantly recognized past their long, sweeping necks and whiplashed tails, and nearly always portrayed moving in herds, beingness stalked by hungry predators.

In recent years, a huge amount of taxonomic attempt from scientists has vastly increased the number of known species of sauropod. What nosotros now know is that in many areas nosotros had ii or more species co-existing alongside each other.

A question that arises from this, is how did we have animals that seem so similar, and with such high free energy and dietary requirements, living alongside one some other? Was there some sort of spinach-similar super plant that gave them all Popeye-like concrete boosts, or something more than subtle?

It'due south a lengthy quote, and it contains more than information than you desire to include. Here's how to cutting it down:

Sauropod dinosaurs are the biggest animals to accept ever walked on country. They are instantly recognized by their long, sweeping necks and whiplashed tails. . . .

In contempo years . . . [research has shown] that in many areas we had two or more than species co-existing alongside each other.

A question that arises from this, is how did nosotros have animals that seem so similar, and with such high energy and dietary requirements, living alongside 1 another?

In the block quote above, you can see that the first ellipsis appears to take iv dots. ("They are instantly recognized by their long, sweeping necks and whiplashed tails. . . .") Even so, this is just a period followed by an ellipsis. This is because ellipses practice not remove punctuation marks when the original punctuation withal is in utilize; they are instead used in conjunction with original punctuation. This is true for all punctuation marks, including periods, commas, semicolons, question marks, and exclamation points.

By looking at ii sympatric species (those that lived together) from the fossil graveyards of the Tardily Jurassic of North America . . . , [David Button] tried to work out what the major dietary differences were between sauropod dinosaurs, based on their beefcake.

One of the best means to check yourself is to accept out the ellipsis. If the judgement or paragraph is still correctly punctuated, yous've used the ellipsis correctly. (Just recall to put it back in!)

Practice

Read the paragraphs below:

Camarasaurus, with its more than mechanically efficient skull, was capable of generating much stronger bite forces thanDiplodocus. This suggests that Camarasaurus was capable of chomping through tougher plant textile thanDiplodocus, and was perhaps even capable of a greater degree of oral processing before digestion. This actually ties in nicely with previous hypotheses of different diets for each, which were based on apparent feeding heights and inferences made from wear marks on their fossilized teeth.

Diplodocus seems to have been well-adapted, despite its weaker skull, to a grade of feeding known as branch stripping, where leaves are plucked from branches as the teeth are dragged along them. The increased flexibility of the neck of Diplodocus compared to other sauropods seems to support this as well.

In terms of their morphological disparity (differences in mechanically-significant aspects of their anatomy), Camarasaurus and Diplodocus announced to vary more than almost whatsoever other sauropod taxa, representing extremes within a spectrum of biomechanical variation related to feeding style.

Do the following quotes utilise ellipses (and surrounding punctuation) correctly?

1. This suggests that Camarasaurus was capable of chomping through tougher plant cloth than Diplodocus. . . This really ties in nicely with previous hypotheses of different diets foreach.
2. Diplodocus seems to take been well-adjusted, . . . to a form of feeding known as branch stripping, where leaves are plucked from branches as the teeth are dragged along them

Pauses

There is one additional use of the ellipsis: this punctuation mark too indicates . . . a break. However, this employ is informal, and should only be used in casual correspondence (east.g., emails to friends, posts on social media, texting) or in creative writing.

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Parentheses

Parentheses are most often used to identify material that acts as an aside (such as this brief comment) or to add incidental information.

Other punctuation marks used alongside parentheses demand to have into account their context. If the parentheses enclose a total sentence beginning with a capital alphabetic character, so the end punctuation for the judgement falls inside the parentheses. For example:

Typically, suppliers specify air to cloth ratios of 6:1 or higher. (Notwithstanding, ratios of four:i should be used for applications involving silica or feldspathic minerals.)

If the parentheses indicate a citation at the end of a sentence, so the sentence'due south stop punctuation comes later the parentheses are closed:

In a report comparison iii different building types, respirable dust concentrations were significantly lower in the open-structure building (Hugh et al., 2005).

Finally, if the parentheses appear in the midst of a sentence (equally in this example), then whatever necessary punctuation (such as the comma that appeared just a few words ago) is delayed until the parentheses are closed.

Remember, parentheses ever announced in pairs. If you open a parenthesis, y'all need another to close it!

Note: In technical writing, there are boosted rules for using parentheses, which tin can be more nuanced. While we won't talk over those rules here, it's important to bear their existence in heed, especially if you're because going into a more technical field.

Do

Have the parentheses been used correctly in the following sentences?

1. He finally arrived at a solution (after reading a dozen way manuals.)
2. The Modern Linguistic communication Clan (MLA) has an online reference website.
3. If the green light does not come on (See instruction booklet.) effort the steps again.
4. If the person responds that the computer is not running smoothly, the caller will enquire the user to boot starting time up the system and report the beginning upward time.

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Self-Check

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/basicreadingandwriting/chapter/outcome-punctuation-4-6/

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